Apoptosis

Apoptosis is a form of programmed cell death characterised by a cascade of molecular events leading to orderly cellular dismantling, including chromatin condensation, DNA fragmentation, membrane blebbing, and formation of apoptotic bodies that are rapidly phagocytosed by neighbouring cells. Unlike necrosis, which causes inflammation and tissue damage, apoptosis is immunologically silent and essential for normal tissue homeostasis, embryonic development, and immune system function. The process is governed by two major pathways: the intrinsic (mitochondrial) pathway, activated by cellular stress, DNA damage, or growth factor withdrawal; and the extrinsic pathway, triggered by death receptor ligands such as Fas and TNF. Both converge on caspase activation, with caspase-3 serving as the primary executioner enzyme. In peptide research, BPC-157 has demonstrated anti-apoptotic properties in stressed tissues, protecting cells from premature death in ischaemic and toxic injury models. Dysregulated apoptosis contributes to cancer (too little), neurodegeneration (too much), and autoimmune disease.